Muslim Women and Youth in the West: Background Paper

Notes to Background Paper

1. Elaine Sciolino and Stephen Grey, “British Terror Trial Traces a Path to Militant Islam,” New York Times, November 26, 2006.

2. Ian Fisher, “Pope Meets Envoys from Muslim Nations, ” International Herald Tribune, September 26, 2006.

3. Alan Cowell, “A Glimpse of Limits to Tolerance, ” International Herald Tribune, October 23, 2006.

4. See, inter alia, H. D. S. Greenway, “Once Again, Britain Looks at Reasons Why, ” International Herald Tribune, August 12, 2006; Fisher, “Pope Meets Envoys from Muslim Nations ”; and Elaine Sciolino, “French Critic of Islam Flees Threats, ” International Herald Tribune, October 1, 2006.

5. John Vinocur, “Nudging to Consensus Over Dutch Muslims, ” International Herald Tribune, November 21, 2006.

6. Dan Bilefsky and Ian Fisher, “Doubts on Muslim Integration Rise in Europe, ” International Herald Tribune, October 12, 2006.

7. In May 2006, the interior ministers of Germany's 16 federal states agreed to common standards governing language and citizenship courses for immigrants seeking naturalization. This was followed by the introduction in November 2006 of a new citizenship examination in the United States intended to inculcate civic values and encourage democratic participation. More stringent citizenship requirements adopted by Britain in October 2005 include a language proficiency test and an exam meant to test a prospective citizen’s knowledge about life in Britain. For further reading, see Judy Dempsey, “Germany Recognizes Its Face Is Changing, ” International Herald Tribune, May 6, 2006; Holli Chmella, “New Citizens Will Need Deeper Knowledge, ” New York Times, December 1, 2006; and Alan Travis, “Testing Passport to UK Citizenship, ” Guardian, November 1, 2005.

8. Jytte Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 6.

9. The number of Muslims in the United States has been estimated as high as 6 to 7.5 million in Qamar–ul Huda, The Diversity of Muslims in the United States, United States Institute of Peace (USIP) Special Report No. 159, February 2006, p. 1, online at http://www.usip.org/pubs/h...tml, and as low as 1.1 million in Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY), American Religious Identification Survey 2001, online at http://www.gc.cuny.edu/...index.htm. The various estimates, together with sources, are summarized in B. A. Robinson, “How Many Muslims Are in the U.S. and the Rest of the World, ” Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, September 2002, pp. 2 –3, online at http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_numb.html. In general, the higher estimates are based on ethnicity and the lower estimates on identity indexes. See Table 1.

10. Robert S. Leiken, “Europe ’s Angry Muslims, ” Foreign Affairs, July –August 2005.

11. “Minority Report: The Trouble with Integration, ” Economist, October 28, 2006.

12. Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe, pp. 188 –190; Nacira Guenif –Souilamas, Des “beurettes ” aux descendantes d ’immigrants nord –africains (Paris: Grasset/Le Monde, 2003), presents a particularly interesting analysis of activism among young Muslim women in France.

13. “Minority Report: The Trouble with Integration, ” Economist.

14. European Union Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia, Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia, 2006, pp. 60 –62, online at http://eumc.europa.eu/.../Manifestations_EN.pdf; and Jocelyne Césari, ed., Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe: Muslims in Western Europe After 9/11, submission to the Changing Landscape of Citizenship and Security 6th PCRD of European Commission, June 1, 2006, pp. 5 –8, online at http://www.euro-islam.info/.....pdf.

15. Hans &–Georg Betz, “Against the ’Green Totalitarianism ’: Anti –Islamic Nativism in Contemporary Radical Right –Wing Populism in Western Europe, ” a paper delivered at the Radical Right and Its Impact on Migration Politics and Policies, a conference held by New York University in Paris and Center for Political Research at Sciences PO (CEVIPOF), November 7 –18, 2006.

16. Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe, pp. 36 –37 and 43; and Randall Hansen, “The Danish Cartoon Controversy: A Defense of Liberal Freedom, ” EUSA Review, vol. 19, no. 2, Spring 2006.

17. Jocelyne Césari, When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States (New York: Palgrave, 2004), p. 11.

18. What might have remained an internal Danish problem became an international affair when, in early 2006, a delegation of Danish imams went on a tour of Muslim countries to emphasize their anger and frustration. This was followed by official statements of protest from Arab governments, attacks on Danish embassies in Muslim countries, and widespread debate in the press and among intellectuals worldwide. Reactions among Muslims in the West were varied, but were generally limited to formal declarations (France) or controlled demonstrations (Britain). See Hansen, “The Danish Cartoon Controversy: A Defense of Liberal Freedom. ”

19. Oliver Roy, Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Umma (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), ch. 1; Gilles Kepel, The War for Muslim Minds: Islam and the West (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), ch. 1.

20. “Joint Effort Pledged on Extremism, ” International Herald Tribune, October 27, 2006.

21. The Immigration and Nationality Act (popularly known as the Hart –Cellar Act) was passed in 1965 and fundamentally altered the U.S. system of immigration control. It abolished the national origins system, together with all race restrictions to immigration; set an annual limit of 170,000 visas for immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere with a limit of 20,000 per country (and was amended in 1968 to include a limit of 120,000 visas for immigrants from the Western Hemisphere, with no country limits); and created preference systems for visas, emphasizing preferences for those with family connections and work. For immigrants from Muslim countries, the act effectively increased the limit of a few hundred places per year to the possibility of thousands of places.

22. See Martin A. Schain, “The Politics of Immigration in France, Britain and the United States: A Transatlantic Comparison, ” in Tim Smeeding and Craig Parsons, eds., Immigration and the Transformation of Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

23. Christian Joppke, Immigration and the Nation –State: The United States, Germany and Great Britain (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), introduction.

24. For elaboration, see Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on a Community Immigration Policy; Rainer Muenz, “Europe: Population and Migration in 2005, ” Migration Information Source, June 2006; Phillip Longman, “The Global Baby Bust, ” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2004.

25. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on a Community Immigration Policy, COM (2000) 757 final (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, November 22, 2000), online at http://europa.eu.int/ and United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, “World Population Prospects, ” February 2005.

26. In 2002, the British government launched a broad program to recruit skilled workers through the Highly Skilled Migrant Program; a new German Immigration Law to attract highly skilled workers went into effect in 2004; and French legislation passed in 2006 (the loi Sarkozy) also provided for highly skilled workers.

27. Renwick McLean, “Spanish Look for Decisive EU Action, ” International Herald Tribune, May 25, 2006.

28. Rim Latrache, “La Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilité, ” doctoral thesis, University of Paris IV—Sorbonne, Civilisation Américaine, December 9, 2006.

29. U.S. Census Bureau, online at http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censur-21.pdf. Also see Geneive Abdo, Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

30. This is the title of the first chapter of Césari ’s book, When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States, pp. 9 –18. What follows is based on her analysis.

31. Jonathan Laurence and Justin Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2006), p. 21.

32. There is often a conflation of religion and ethnicity for purposes of establishing numbers, and there is considerable disagreement about just how many Muslims there are from country to country. Thus, the estimates of the number of Muslims in the United States vary from a low of about 1.1 million to a high of 7.5 million (see footnote 9), and for France between 2.5 and 5 million. (Laurence and Vaisse, p. 19).

33. Surveys rely on national samples of no more than a few thousand people. Where the Muslim population is 1 percent or less of the population, the subsample of Muslims would be less than 20, a number that is statistically unreliable, especially if there is variation of opinion within it.

34. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 20.

35. All of these estimates are from Césari, When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States, appendix I.

36. Ibid., p. 9.

37. Shireen T. Hunter, ed., Islam, Europe Islam, Europe ’s Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscapersquo;s Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscape (Westport, CT: Praeger Publi –shers, 2002), chs. 4 and 8.

38. Ibid., appendix I.

39. U.S. Census Bureau, online at http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censusr-21.pdf.

40. Arab American Institute, 2002, www.aaiusa.org; and Latrache, La CommunautLa Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilitéeacute; arabe aux Etats La Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibiliténdash;Unis: histoire d La Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilitérsquo;immigration et enjeux de la visibilitLa Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilitéeacute; et de l La Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilitérsquo;invisibilitLa Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilitéeacute;, pp. 293 –295.

41. See Césari, When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States, p. 221, footnote 10, for an evaluation of sources.

42. See Ibid., p. 11, and Rim Latrache, La Communauté arabe aux Etats –Unis: histoire d ’immigration et enjeux de la visibilité et de l ’invisibilité, p. 6.

43. American Muslim Poll 2004 conducted by Zogby International for Muslims in the American Public Square (Project MAPS), pp. 47 –48, online at http://zogby.com/AmericanMuslims2004.pdf.

44. See Migration Policy Institute, 2004, Changer les principes en actions.

45. Shireen T. Hunter, La Radicalisation et les jeunes des minorités ethniques en Europe for the Migration Policy Institute, 2004, pp. 36 –44.

46. Estimates for illegal immigration are usually issued without explanation by government ministries. Nevertheless, recent reports in several countries indicate an important increase of undocumented immigrants arriving in Europe from Africa south of the Sahara. In France, immigrants (legal and illegal) represent the largest increase of any single group. Source: Institut National de la Statistique et des ƒeacute;tudes ƒeacute;conomiques (INSEE), Les Immigrés en France, 2005 ed. (Paris: INSEE, 2005), pp. 28, 244.

47. Patrick Weil, La France et ses étrangers (Paris: Gallimard, 1991), pp. 77 –84.

48. Martin A. Schain, “Ordinary Politics: Immigrants, Direct Action and the Political Process in France, ” French Politics and Society, vol. 12, nos. 2 –3, Spring –Summer 1994.

49. Joppke, Immigration and the Nation Immigration and the Nation –State: The United States, Germany and Great Britainndash;State: The United States, Germany and Great Britain, p. 64.

50. Ibid., p. 65.

51. Ibid., pp. 69 –99.

52. “Trends in International Migration: SOPEMI—2004 Edition, ” OECD Social Issues/Migration/Health, vol. 2005, no. 4, April 2006, p. 350.

53. Joppke, Immigration and the Nation Immigration and the Nation –State: The United States, Germany and Great Britainndash;State: The United States, Germany and Great Britain, pp. 104 –108; Randall Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration in Post –war Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), ch. 1.

54. Joppke, Immigration and the Nation Immigration and the Nation –State: The United States, Germany and Great Britainndash;State: The United States, Germany and Great Britain, pp. 114 –134.

55. Steven A. Camarota, “Immigrants from the Middle East: A Profile of the Foreign –Born Population from Pakistan to Morocco, ” Center for Immigration Studies, August 2002, online at http://www.cis.org/articles/2002/back902.pdf.

56. Ibid., p. 11. For a picture of the success of Muslims in the United States, see Paul Barrett, American Islam: The Struggle for the Soul of a Religion (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006).

57. Council on American –Islamic Relations (CAIR), American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes, October 24, 2006, pp. 4 –6, online at http://www.cair.com/pdf/American_Muslim_Voter_Survey_2006.pdf.

58. Daniel W. Sutherland, “Threat of Islamic Radicalization to the Homeland, ” testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, March 14, 2007.

59. CAIR, American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes, p. 3.

60. Camarota, “Immigrants from the Middle East: A Profile of the Foreign –Born Population from Pakistan to Morocco, ” p. 2.

61. Nadia Khouri –Dagher, “Française du Maghreb: la Réussite Silencieuse, ” Le Monde magazine, March 4 –10, 2006.

62. See Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

63. Jacques Barou, “L ’islam, facteur de regulation sociale? ” Esprit Special Issue: Franais/Immigrés, vol. 102, June 1985, pp. 207 –215; and Schain, “Ordinary Politics: Immigrants, Direct Action and the Political Process in France. ”

64. Pascal Ceaux, “M. Sarkozy defend l ’Islam et relance le débat sur la la•cité, ” Le Monde, October 27, 2004.

65. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, pp. 157 –159.

66. John Bowen, “Does French Islam Have Borders? Dilemmas of Domestication in a Global Religious Field, ” American Anthropologist, vol. 106, no. 4, 2004.

67. So, for example, Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 83, estimate a ratio of just over 1,000 Catholics for each church, 671 Protestants for each church, and 238 Jews for each synagogue.

68. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 83.

69. This estimate by the U.K. –based Islamic charitable organization, Salaam Network, is online at http://www.salaam.co.uk/mosques/index.php.

70. See Andrea Elliott, “Between Black and Immigrant Muslims, an Uneasy Alliance, ” New York Times, March 11, 2007.

71. Only Belgium extends to Islam the same recognition that it extends to other religions and to non –believers. Subsidies are financed at the regional level, but disagreement between Turkish and Moroccan mosque associations has been largely responsible for the failure to implement a subsidy law passed in 2001. There has been a similar problem of finance in Germany.

72. Alan Wolfe, The Transformation of American Religion: How We Actually Live Our Faith (New York: Free Press, 2003), pp. 245 –248.

73. For a look at the privileges afforded to religious organizations in the United States, see Diana B. Henriques ’s articles “Religion –Based Tax Breaks: Housing to Paychecks to Books, ” New York Times, October 11, 2006, and “Religion Trumps Regulation as Legal Exemptions Grow, ” New York Times, October 8, 2006, as well as other pieces in a special series about religion in the New York Times.

74. Aristide Zolberg, “The Democratic Management of Cultural Differences: Building Inclusive Societies in Western Europe and North America, ” Human Development Report (United Nations Development Program, 2004) p. 17.

75. Charles A. Radin and Yvonne Abraham, “Aide ’s Role in Mosque Deal Eyed, ” Boston Globe, March 4, 2006.

76. Diana Eck, A New Religious America: How a Christian Country Has Become the World A New Religious America: How a Christian Country Has Become the World ’s Most Religiously Diverse Nationrsquo;s Most Religiously Diverse Nation (San Francisco: Harper, 2002), ch. 5.

77. Patrick Weil, “Lifting the Veil, ” French Politics, Culture and Society, vol. 22, no. 3, Fall 2004.

78. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 82.

79. See Zolberg, “The Democratic Management of Cultural Differences: Building Inclusive Societies in Western Europe and North America, ” p. 47; and Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, pp. 138 –139.

80. Xavier Ternisien, “UOIF, Un réseau en quéte de reconnaissance, ” Le Monde, June 23, 2006.

81. Zolberg, “The Democratic Management of Cultural Differences: Building Inclusive Societies in Western Europe and North America, ” p. 52; Elaine C. Hagopian, Civil Rights in Peril: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims (London: Pluto Press, 2004), pp. 9 –71; Neil MacFarquhar, “Fears of Inquiry Dampen Giving by U.S. Muslims, ” New York Times, October 30, 2006.

82. Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe, p. 138.

83. “Muslim Group ’s First Mission: Official Recognition of Islam in Germany? ” Spiegel Online Inter –national, April 16, 2007, http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,477438,00.html.

84. Steven Vertovec and Ceri Peach, eds., Islam in Europe: The Politics of Religion and Community (New York: St. Martin ’s Press), ch. 1.

85. Zolberg, “The Democratic Management of Cultural Differences: Building Inclusive Societies in Western Europe and North America” p. 39.

86. Faith schools—including 7,000 Christian and 36 Jewish schools comprise about a third of the schools in the British public system. See Alan Cowell, “Islamic Schools at the Heart of British Debate on Integration, ” International Herald Tribune, October 16, 2006.

87. U.S. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report, Europe, ” a report by the under secretary for democracy and global affairs in the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2006.

88. American Religious Identification Survey 2001, pp. 12 –13.

89. See C. Kirk Hadaway et al., “What the Polls Don’t Show: A Closer Look at U.S. Church Attendance, ” American Sociological Review, vol. 58, December 1993, pp. 741 –752.

90. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 76.

91. Sylvain Brouard and Vincent Tiberj, Francais comme les autres? Enquete sur les citoyens d ’origine maghrebine, africaine et turque (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 2005), pp. 30 –35.

92. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 76.

93. Brouard and Tiberj, Francais comme les autres? Enquete sur les citoyens d ’origine maghrebine, africaine et turque, pp. 30 –35.

94. Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe, pp. 139 –142.

95. See American Religious Identification Survey 2001, p. 26; and U.S. Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report, Europe. ”

96. CAIR, American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes, p. 9.

97. MAPS, p. 46.

98. Ibid.

99. American Religious Identification Survey 2001; CAIR, American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes.

100. Césari, When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States, ch. 3.

101. Muslims in the American Public Square, p. 47.

102. Guenif –Souilamas, Des “beurettes ” aux descendantes d ’immigrants nord –africains, introduction.

103. See Nadia Hashmi, “Race, Gender and Difference: Western Europe, ” in Suad Joseph, ed., Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures, vol. 2 (Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2003); Paul Cruickshank, “Covered Faces, Open Rebellion, ” International Herald Tribune, October 24, 2006; and Guenif –Souilamas, Des “beurettes ” aux descendantes d ’immigrants nord –africains.

104. Zolberg, “The Democratic Management of Cultural Differences: Building Inclusive Societies in Western Europe and North America” pp. 27 –28; and Ranier Baubšck, The Integration of Immigrants PO –S_MG(94) (Strasbourg: Council of Europe), March 25, 1994.

105. Kevin Sullivan and Joshua Partlow, “Young Muslim Rage Takes Root in Britain, ” Washington Post, August 13, 2006.

106. European Union Council Directive 2000/43/EC, June 29, 2000. The EU directive on discrimination has been an attempt to generalize the British and Dutch initiatives in this area—which in turn had used the American initiatives of the 1960s as a model—to the rest of the European Union; progress has been slow. A well –written comparative analysis can be found in Pierre –Yves Cusset, “Les statistiques ethniques: premiers ments de cadrage, ” a note submitted to the meeting Statistiques ethniques organized by the Centre d ’Analyse Stratégique, October 19, 2006, and available online at http://www.strategie.gouv.fr/....pdf.

107. Leclerc, “Des émeutiers violents, mais bien insérŽeacute;s, ” Le Figaro; and Stéphane Beaud and Michel Pauloux, Violences urbaines, violence sociale: Genèse des nouvelles classes dangereuses (Paris: Fayard, 2003), introduction.

108. Organization for Economic Co –operation and Development (OECD), International Immigration Outlook (Washington, DC: OECD, 2006), p. 73.

109. Sullivan and Partlow, “Young Muslim Rage Takes Root in Britain” Washington Post.

110. Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe, p. 62.

111. Theodore Lowi, The End of Liberalism (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), ch. 1.

112. Gérard Noiriel, in Le creuset français (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1988), pp. 189 –245, gives a good summary of the principles of integration. A reaffirmation of this approach can be found in the Rapport de la Commission de la nationalité, Marceau Long, Etre français aujourd ’hui et demain (Paris: Union Générale d ’Editions, 1988), pp. 82 –105.

113. Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), ch. 1.

114. Ira Katznelson, Black Men, White Cities; Race, Politics, and Migration in the United States, 1900 –30 and Britain, 1948 –68 (London, New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), pp. 125 –126, published for the Institute of Race Relations. This observation was made while British integration policy was still being formulated.

115. See Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration in Post –war Britain, p. 128 and ch. 6; and Erik Bleich, Race Politics in Britain and France: Ideas and Policymaking Since the 1960s (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 84 –85.

116. Patrick Weil and John Crowley, “Integration in Theory and Practice: A Comparison of France and Britain, ” in Martin Baldwin –Edwards and Martin A. Schain, eds., The Politics of Immigration in Western Europe (London: Cass, 1994), p. 118.

117. Jan Willem Duyvendak, Tjrees Pels, and Rally Rijkschroeff, “A Multicultural Paradise? The Cultural Factor in Dutch Integration Policy, ” unpublished manuscript, 2007, p. 18.

118. The model was developed into a political theory by Arendt Lijphart in The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in The Netherlands (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1968).

119. Duyvendak, Pels, and Rijkschroeff, “A Multicultural Paradise? The Cultural Factor in Dutch Integration Policy, ” pp. 18 –19.

120. Ibid., p. 21.

121. See Andrew Geddes, The Politics of Migration and Integration in Europe (London: Sage, 2003), pp. 114 –115; and Joppke, “The Retreat of Multiculturalism in the Liberal State: Theory and Policy, ” British Journal of Sociology, vol. 55, no. 2, 2004.

122. For more detail on the evolution of the Dutch model, see Hunter, ed., Islam, Europe Islam, Europe ’s Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscape, pp. 111 –113; and Ian Buruma, Murder in Amsterdam (New York: Penguin, 2006).

123. Duyvendak, Pels, and Rijkschroeff, “A Multicultural Paradise? The Cultural Factor in Dutch Integration Policy, ” p. 27; and Marcel Maussen, “The Netherlands, ” in Césari, Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe: Muslims in Western Europe after 9/11, pp. 100 –141.

124. Lowi, The End of Liberalism, ch. 1.

125. Marco Martiniello, Sortir des ghettos culturels (Paris: Presses de Sciences Po, 1997), pp. 58 –63.

126. Schain, “Minorities and Immigrant Incorporation in France: The State and the Dynamics of Multicultur –alism, ” in Christian Joppke and Steven Lukes, eds., Multicultural Questions, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), ch. 10.

127. Geddes, The Politics of Migration and Integration in Europe, pp. 44 –46 and 112 –122.

128. Sophie Body –Gendrot, “From Old Threats to Enigmatic Enemies: The Evolution of Urban Violence in France, ” in Sophie Body –Gendrot and Pieter Spierenburg, eds., The Civilization of Violence in Europe: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Springer, in press).

129. Riva Kastoryano, Negotiating Identities: States and Immigrants in France and Germany (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), ch. 1.

130. Religion was not covered by the various race relations acts, but it was included in the purview of the Human Rights Act of 1998, which incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into British law.

131. Bleich, Race Politics in Britain and France: Ideas and Policymaking Since the 1960s, pp. 9 –13.

132. Dominique Meurs, Ariane Paihé, and Patrick Simon, “Mobilité intergénérationelle et persistance des inégalités, ” Institut national d ’études démographiques, Document de travail, no. 130, 2005.

133. Banlieues un an après, a supplement of Le Monde, October 26, 2006.

134. Camarota, “Immigrants from the Middle East: A Profile of the Foreign –Born Population from Pakistan to Morocco. ”

135. Zolberg, “The Democratic Management of Cultural Differences: Building Inclusive Societies in Western Europe and North America” p. 51.

136. CAIR, American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes, p. 12; and MAPS, p. 35.

137. CAIR, American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes, p. 11.

138. Jean –Pierre Stroobants, Antoine Jacob, and Jean –Pierre Langellier, “Signes religieux: L ’Europe est gagnée par le sur la compatibilité du voile islamique avec l ’intégration,’ Le Monde, October 22–23, 2006

139. Alan Cowell, “Blair Calls Use of Veil ’a Mark of Separation, ’ ” International Herald Tribune, October 18, 2006.

140. Stroobants et al., “Signes religieux: L ’Europe est gagnée par le débat sur la compatibilité du voile islamique avec l ’intégration. ”

141. Stephanie Giry, “France and Its Muslims, ” Foreign Affairs, September –October 2006.

142. Brouard and Tiberj, Francais comme les autres? Enquete sur les citoyens d ’origine maghrebine, africaine et turque, pp. 33 and 47 –51.

143. Pew Research Center, “The Great Divide: How Westerners and Muslims View Each Other ” (Washington, DC: Pew Global Attitude Project, June 22, 2006).

144. Klausen, The Islamic Challenge: Politics and Religion in Western Europe, p. 87.

145. Chrispophe Jakubyszyn, “Après la crise de novembre, des jeunes veulent faire entendre leur voix aux prochaines elections, ” Le Monde, December 29, 2005.

146. Richard Alba and Nancy Foner, “Entering the Precincts of Power: Do National Differences Matter for Immigrant Minority Political Representation? ” unpublished paper, February 2006, p. 20.

147. Ibid., p. 7.

148. Ibid., p. 8.

149. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, p. 196.

150. Romain Garbaye, “Ethnic Minority Local Councilors in French and British Cities: Social Determinants and Political Opportunity Structures, ” in R. Rinus Pennix et al., eds. Citizenship in European Cities (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 47 –48.

151. Romain Garbaye, Getting Into Local Power: The Politics of Ethnic Minorities in British and French Cities (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), p. 200.

152. Alba and Foner, “Entering the Precincts of Power: Do National Differences Matter for Immigrant Minority Political Representation? ” table 1.

153. Ibid., p. 12.

154. Bleich, Race Politics in Britain and France: Ideas and Policymaking Since the 1960s, pp. 92 –93.

155. Brouard and Tiberj, Francais comme les autres? Enquete sur les citoyens d ’origine maghrebine, africaine et turque, p. 49.

156. Ibid., p. 56.

157. MAPS, p. 23; and CAIR, American Muslim Voters: A Demographic Profile and Survey of Attitudes, p. 11.

158. Sophie Body –Gendrot, Ville et Violence: l ’irruption de nouveaux acteurs (Paris: PUF, 1993), chs. 4 –5; and Adil Jazouli, Les années banlieues (Paris: Seuil, 1992), concluding chapter.

159. The report of the French Senate is summarized in Le Point, August 28, 1993. Trans. Martin A. Schain.

160. Schain, “Minorities and Immigrant Incorporation in France: The State and the Dynamics of Multicultur –alism, ” in Joppke and Lukes, eds., Multiculturalism Questions, ch. 5.

161. In 1957, President Eisenhower sent federal troops into the University of Arkansas in Little Rock against the will of the governor to enforce the integration of a few black students into the university.

162. Bleich, Race Politics in Britain and France: Ideas and Policymaking Since the 1960s, p. 45.

163. Leiken, “Europe ’s Angry Muslims. ”

164. Jeremy Shapiro and Bénédicte Suzan, “The French Experience of Counter –Terrorism, ” Survival, vol. 45, no. 1, Spring 2003.

165. Ibid.

166. Henri Astier, “Profile: France ’s Top Anti –terror Judge, ” BBC News Online, July 1, 2003: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3031640.stm.

167. An exception to this occurred on November 8, 1994, when 78 of the 93 arrested were brought to trial, of which 51 were cleared. See Shapiro and Suzan, “The French Experience of Counter –Terrorism. ”

168. Though the British police work in much the same way as the French, the former are not under the authority of a judge. Former British Home Secretary Charles Clarke has stated a number of times since the attacks on the London underground in 2005 that a French –style system in the United Kingdom could be more effective in detaining suspects while a case is being constructed against them. See Julia Hartley –Brewer, “Clarke Launches Triple Offensive Against Terror, ” Sunday Express, July 17, 2005.

169. Laurent Bonelli, “The Control of the Enemy Within? Police Intelligence in the French Suburbs and Its Relevance for Globalization, ” in Didier Bigo and Elspeth Guild, eds., Controlling Frontiers (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2005), pp. 103 –205.

170. John Rowe, QC, “Review of the Operation of the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1989, ” a report by the U.K. Home Office, March 7, 2000, ch. 12.

171. Lord Carlile of Berriew, QC, “Report on the Operation in 2001 of the Terrorism Act 2000, ” a report by the U.K. Home Office, November 26, 2002, annex 1. This report is available for each year since 2002.

172. Ibid., annex F.

173. “Anti –terrorism, Crime and Security Bill: Further Report, ” a report from the Joint Committee on Human Rights to the U.K. House of Lords, 2002, p. 37.

174. Sullivan and Partlow, “Young Muslim Rage Takes Root in Britain, ” Washington Post.

175. Elaine C. Hagopian, Civil Rights in Peril: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims (London: Pluto Press, 2004), introduction.

176. All of this information is taken from the The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), pp. 74 –75, 77, 81, 93.

177. George Tenet, “Written Statement for the Record of the Director of Central Intelligence Before the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, ” April 14, 2004, online at https://www.cia.gov/cia/public_affairs/....html.

178. The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, ch. 3.

179. Stephen J. Schulhofer, Rethinking the Patriot Act: Keeping America Safe and Free (New York: Century Foundation Press, 2005), introduction.

180. Robert A. Levy, CATO Handbook for Congress, Policy Recommendations for the 108th Congress (Washington, DC: CATO Institute, 2002), p. 120, online at http://www.cato.org/pubs/handbook/hb108/hb108-12.pdf.

181. Testimony of the Honorable John Ashcroft, attorney general of the United States, before the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary hearing on “The War Against Terrorism: Working Together to Protect America, ” March 4, 2003, online at http://judiciary.senate.gov/testimony.cfm?id=612&wit_id=42.

182. Karen Greenberg, “The Courts and the War on Terror, ” TomDispatch, March 13, 2005, online at http://www.TomDispatch.com/post/2256/greenberg.....

183. Nina Bernstein, William Rashbaum, and Souad Mekhennet, “Questions, Bitterness and Exile for Queens Girl in Terror Case, ” New York Times, June 17, 2005.

184. Schulhofer, Rethinking the Patriot Act: Keeping America Safe and Free, p. 3.

185. Hamdi gave up his American citizenship and was deported to Saudi Arabia in September 2004, after the U.S. Supreme Court remanded his case in June (124 S Ct. 2633 2004); Padilla is now being tried, but not on the original charges.

186. Schulhofer, Rethinking the Patriot Act: Keeping America Safe and Free, p. 5.

187. Bernstein et al., “Questions, Bitterness and Exile for Queens Girl in Terror Case. ”

188. James J. Zogby, Arab –American Attitudes and the September 11 Attacks, a report of a poll commissioned by the Arab American Institute, October 15, 2001, p. 3.

189. Eric Lichtblau and James Risen, “Top Aide Defends Domestic Spying, ” New York Times, February 7, 2007; the numbers speculation was further elaborated in Leslie Cauley, “NSA Has Massive Database of Americans ’ Phone Calls, ” USA Today, May 10, 2006, and Susan Page, “NSA Secret Database Report Triggers Fierce Debate in Washington, ” USA Today, May 11, 2006.

190. Leiken, “Europe’s Angry Muslims.”

191. For more information about these initiatives, see the Web sites of the U.K. Foreign and Commonwealth Office, http://www.fco.gov.uk, and the Department of Communities and Local Government, http://www.communities.gov.uk. Communities and Local Govern –ment was established in May 2006; one of its policy remits is to build community cohesion and tackle extremism.

192. See the testimony of Daniel Sutherland, pp. 4 –5.

193. Pierre –Yves Cusset, “Les statistiques << ethniques >> premiers elements de cadrage, ” pp. 1 –6.

194. Aristide Zolberg with Allison Joy Clarkin, Sharing Integration Experiences: Innovative Practices on Two Continents (New York: Center for Migration, Ethnicity and Citizenship, the New School, 2003).

195. Khouri –Dagher, “Française du Maghreb: la Réussite Silencieuse. ”

196. Migration Policy Institute, Changer les principes en actions; and Hashmi, “Race, Gender and Difference: Western Europe. ”

197. Eric Pfanner, “Britain Debates State Aid for Muslim Schooling, ” International Herald Tribune, October 31, 2005.

198. Migration Policy Institute, Changer les principes en actions, p. 48.

199. Ibid., p. 50.

200. Ibid., p. 52.

201. Bleich, Race Politics in Britain and France: Ideas and Policymaking Since the 1960s, pp. 197 –201.

202. Cusset, “Les statistiques << ethniques >> premiers éléments de cadrage, ” pp. 13 –18.

203. European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia (Vienna: Manz Crossmedia, 2006).

204. Migration Policy Institute, Changer les principes en actions, p. 60.

205. Michel Delberghe, “Des Employeurs recrutent en bas des tours, ” Banlieues un an après, p. iii, Le Monde, October 26, 2006.

206. F. D. Wilson, “Metropolitan Labor Markets and Ethnic Niching, ”paper no. 1204–00 in the Poverty Discussion Papers series of the University of Wisconsin Institute for Research on Poverty, 2000.

207. Khouri–Dagher, “Franaise du Maghreb: la Réussite Silencieuse, ” emphasizes the importance of hundreds of such associations for the economic success of Muslim women in France.

208. Catherine Wihtol de Wenden and Christophe Bertossi, “Les militaires français issus de l ’immigration,” the Centre d ’études en Sciences Sociales de la Défense (Research Center for the Social Sciences of Defense/C2SD), no. 78, 2005.

209. Garbaye, Getting Into Local Power: The Politics of Ethnic Minorities in British and French Cities, p. 200

210. Roger Waldinger and Mehdi Bozorgmehr, “From Ellis Island to LAX, ” unpublished paper, Department of Sociology, University of California, Los Angeles, August 1993.

211. Alba and Foner, “Entering the Precincts of Power: Do National Differences Matter for Immigrant Minority Political Representation?” p.1.

212. See Garbaye, Getting Into Local Power: The Politics of Ethnic Minorities in British and French Cities; and Hassan Bousetta, “Immigration, Post –Immigration Politics and Political Mobilization of Ethnic Minorities: A Comparative Case Study of Moroccans in Four European Cities, ” doctoral dissertation, Catholic University, Brussels, 2001.

213. Laurence and Vaisse, Integrating Islam: Political and Religious Challenges in Contemporary France, pp. 157 –159.

214. See, inter alia, Leclerc, “Desemeutiers violents, mais bien insérs ”; Michel Delberghe, “Des Employeurs recrutent en bas des tours ”; and Natalie Guibert, “La majorité des mineurs présentés aux juges étaient ‘inconnus ’ des tribunaux, ” Le Monde, November 26, 2005.

215. See the FCO Web site, Engaging with the Islamic World Group: http://www.fco.gov.uk/....1133774501517.

216. The Mosques and Imams National Advisory Board led by Lord Ahmed, a Muslim member of the House of Lords, has yet to deliver a report on this subject that was commissioned in 2006.

217. These proposals have not been endorsed by the Muslim Council of Britain. See Jane Perlez, “Britain Aims to Isolate Muslim Extremists, Official Says” New York Times, April 6, 2007.

218. Hartley –Brewer, “Clarke Launches Triple Offensive Against Terror.”

219. See the testimony of Daniel Sutherland, p. 3.

220. Ibid., pp. 4 –5.

221. Ibid., p. 7.

222. The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, pp. 74 –75.

223. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on a Community Immigration Policy, pp. 24 –28.

224. European Union Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia, Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia, p. 32.

225. Ibid., pp. 44 –47.

226. “Active Participation of Ethnic Minority Youth in Society, ” a paper delivered at the European Conference on Active Participation of Ethnic Minority Youth in Society, a conference hosted by the Danish Ministry of Refugee, Immigration, and Integration Affairs in Copenhagen, September 7 –8, 2006.

227. Alliance of Civilizations, Report of the High Report of the High–Level Group (United Nations: New York, November 13, 2006), p. 35. The Alliance of Civilizations is an initiative launched in July 2005 by then –United Nations Secretary –General Kofi Annan and cosponsored by the prime ministers of Spain and Turkey. It works to bridge divides between societies that are being exploited by extremists.

228. Riva Kastoryano, Negotiating Identities: States and Immigrants in France and Germany, ch. 1.

229. Pascale Robert –Diard, “Ce prénom, ce pas moi! ” Le Monde, April 14, 2007. Trans. Shaanti Kapila.

230. European Union Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia, Muslims in the European Union: Discrimination and Islamophobia, p. 31.

231. Alliance of Civilizations, Report of the High Report of the High–Level Group, p. 30.

232. Ibid.

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